Related
This question is not for the discussion of whether or not the singleton design pattern is desirable, is an anti-pattern, or for any religious wars, but to discuss how this pattern is best implemented in Python in such a way that is most pythonic. In this instance I define 'most pythonic' to mean that it follows the 'principle of least astonishment'.
I have multiple classes which would become singletons (my use-case is for a logger, but this is not important). I do not wish to clutter several classes with added gumph when I can simply inherit or decorate.
Best methods:
Method 1: A decorator
def singleton(class_):
instances = {}
def getinstance(*args, **kwargs):
if class_ not in instances:
instances[class_] = class_(*args, **kwargs)
return instances[class_]
return getinstance
#singleton
class MyClass(BaseClass):
pass
Pros
Decorators are additive in a way that is often more intuitive than multiple inheritance.
Cons
While objects created using MyClass() would be true singleton objects, MyClass itself is a function, not a class, so you cannot call class methods from it. Also for
x = MyClass();
y = MyClass();
t = type(n)();
then x == y but x != t && y != t
Method 2: A base class
class Singleton(object):
_instance = None
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if not isinstance(class_._instance, class_):
class_._instance = object.__new__(class_, *args, **kwargs)
return class_._instance
class MyClass(Singleton, BaseClass):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Cons
Multiple inheritance - eugh! __new__ could be overwritten during inheritance from a second base class? One has to think more than is necessary.
Method 3: A metaclass
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
#Python2
class MyClass(BaseClass):
__metaclass__ = Singleton
#Python3
class MyClass(BaseClass, metaclass=Singleton):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Auto-magically covers inheritance
Uses __metaclass__ for its proper purpose (and made me aware of it)
Cons
Are there any?
Method 4: decorator returning a class with the same name
def singleton(class_):
class class_w(class_):
_instance = None
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if class_w._instance is None:
class_w._instance = super(class_w,
class_).__new__(class_,
*args,
**kwargs)
class_w._instance._sealed = False
return class_w._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._sealed:
return
super(class_w, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
self._sealed = True
class_w.__name__ = class_.__name__
return class_w
#singleton
class MyClass(BaseClass):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Auto-magically covers inheritance
Cons
Is there not an overhead for creating each new class? Here we are creating two classes for each class we wish to make a singleton. While this is fine in my case, I worry that this might not scale. Of course there is a matter of debate as to whether it aught to be too easy to scale this pattern...
What is the point of the _sealed attribute
Can't call methods of the same name on base classes using super() because they will recurse. This means you can't customize __new__ and can't subclass a class that needs you to call up to __init__.
Method 5: a module
a module file singleton.py
Pros
Simple is better than complex
Cons
Not lazily instantiated
Use a Metaclass
I would recommend Method #2, but you're better off using a metaclass than a base class. Here is a sample implementation:
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
class Logger(object):
__metaclass__ = Singleton
Or in Python3
class Logger(metaclass=Singleton):
pass
If you want to run __init__ every time the class is called, add
else:
cls._instances[cls].__init__(*args, **kwargs)
to the if statement in Singleton.__call__.
A few words about metaclasses. A metaclass is the class of a class; that is, a class is an instance of its metaclass. You find the metaclass of an object in Python with type(obj). Normal new-style classes are of type type. Logger in the code above will be of type class 'your_module.Singleton', just as the (only) instance of Logger will be of type class 'your_module.Logger'. When you call logger with Logger(), Python first asks the metaclass of Logger, Singleton, what to do, allowing instance creation to be pre-empted. This process is the same as Python asking a class what to do by calling __getattr__ when you reference one of its attributes by doing myclass.attribute.
A metaclass essentially decides what the definition of a class means and how to implement that definition. See for example http://code.activestate.com/recipes/498149/, which essentially recreates C-style structs in Python using metaclasses. The thread What are some (concrete) use-cases for metaclasses? also provides some examples, they generally seem to be related to declarative programming, especially as used in ORMs.
In this situation, if you use your Method #2, and a subclass defines a __new__ method, it will be executed every time you call SubClassOfSingleton() -- because it is responsible for calling the method that returns the stored instance. With a metaclass, it will only be called once, when the only instance is created. You want to customize what it means to call the class, which is decided by its type.
In general, it makes sense to use a metaclass to implement a singleton. A singleton is special because is created only once, and a metaclass is the way you customize the creation of a class. Using a metaclass gives you more control in case you need to customize the singleton class definitions in other ways.
Your singletons won't need multiple inheritance (because the metaclass is not a base class), but for subclasses of the created class that use multiple inheritance, you need to make sure the singleton class is the first / leftmost one with a metaclass that redefines __call__ This is very unlikely to be an issue. The instance dict is not in the instance's namespace so it won't accidentally overwrite it.
You will also hear that the singleton pattern violates the "Single Responsibility Principle" -- each class should do only one thing. That way you don't have to worry about messing up one thing the code does if you need to change another, because they are separate and encapsulated. The metaclass implementation passes this test. The metaclass is responsible for enforcing the pattern and the created class and subclasses need not be aware that they are singletons. Method #1 fails this test, as you noted with "MyClass itself is a a function, not a class, so you cannot call class methods from it."
Python 2 and 3 Compatible Version
Writing something that works in both Python2 and 3 requires using a slightly more complicated scheme. Since metaclasses are usually subclasses of type type, it's possible to use one to dynamically create an intermediary base class at run time with it as its metaclass and then use that as the baseclass of the public Singleton base class. It's harder to explain than to do, as illustrated next:
# works in Python 2 & 3
class _Singleton(type):
""" A metaclass that creates a Singleton base class when called. """
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(_Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
class Singleton(_Singleton('SingletonMeta', (object,), {})): pass
class Logger(Singleton):
pass
An ironic aspect of this approach is that it's using subclassing to implement a metaclass. One possible advantage is that, unlike with a pure metaclass, isinstance(inst, Singleton) will return True.
Corrections
On another topic, you've probably already noticed this, but the base class implementation in your original post is wrong. _instances needs to be referenced on the class, you need to use super() or you're recursing, and __new__ is actually a static method that you have to pass the class to, not a class method, as the actual class hasn't been created yet when it is called. All of these things will be true for a metaclass implementation as well.
class Singleton(object):
_instances = {}
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if class_ not in class_._instances:
class_._instances[class_] = super(Singleton, class_).__new__(class_, *args, **kwargs)
return class_._instances[class_]
class MyClass(Singleton):
pass
c = MyClass()
Decorator Returning A Class
I originally was writing a comment but it was too long, so I'll add this here. Method #4 is better than the other decorator version, but it's more code than needed for a singleton, and it's not as clear what it does.
The main problems stem from the class being its own base class. First, isn't it weird to have a class be a subclass of a nearly identical class with the same name that exists only in its __class__ attribute? This also means that you can't define any methods that call the method of the same name on their base class with super() because they will recurse. This means your class can't customize __new__, and can't derive from any classes that need __init__ called on them.
When to use the singleton pattern
Your use case is one of the better examples of wanting to use a singleton. You say in one of the comments "To me logging has always seemed a natural candidate for Singletons." You're absolutely right.
When people say singletons are bad, the most common reason is they are implicit shared state. While with global variables and top-level module imports are explicit shared state, other objects that are passed around are generally instantiated. This is a good point, with two exceptions.
The first, and one that gets mentioned in various places, is when the singletons are constant. Use of global constants, especially enums, is widely accepted, and considered sane because no matter what, none of the users can mess them up for any other user. This is equally true for a constant singleton.
The second exception, which get mentioned less, is the opposite -- when the singleton is only a data sink, not a data source (directly or indirectly). This is why loggers feel like a "natural" use for singletons. As the various users are not changing the loggers in ways other users will care about, there is not really shared state. This negates the primary argument against the singleton pattern, and makes them a reasonable choice because of their ease of use for the task.
Here is a quote from http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2008/08/root-cause-of-singletons.html:
Now, there is one kind of Singleton which is OK. That is a singleton where all of the reachable objects are immutable. If all objects are immutable than Singleton has no global state, as everything is constant. But it is so easy to turn this kind of singleton into mutable one, it is very slippery slope. Therefore, I am against these Singletons too, not because they are bad, but because it is very easy for them to go bad. (As a side note Java enumeration are just these kind of singletons. As long as you don't put state into your enumeration you are OK, so please don't.)
The other kind of Singletons, which are semi-acceptable are those which don't effect the execution of your code, They have no "side effects". Logging is perfect example. It is loaded with Singletons and global state. It is acceptable (as in it will not hurt you) because your application does not behave any different whether or not a given logger is enabled. The information here flows one way: From your application into the logger. Even thought loggers are global state since no information flows from loggers into your application, loggers are acceptable. You should still inject your logger if you want your test to assert that something is getting logged, but in general Loggers are not harmful despite being full of state.
class Foo(object):
pass
some_global_variable = Foo()
Modules are imported only once, everything else is overthinking. Don't use singletons and try not to use globals.
Use a module. It is imported only once. Define some global variables in it - they will be singleton's 'attributes'. Add some functions - the singleton's 'methods'.
You probably never need a singleton in Python. Just define all your data and functions in a module and you have a de facto singleton:
import datetime
file_name=None
def set_file_name(new_file_name: str):
global file_name
file_name=new_file_name
def write(message: str):
global file_name
if file_name:
with open(file_name, 'a+') as f:
f.write("{} {}\n".format(datetime.datetime.now(), message))
else:
print("LOG: {}", message)
To use:
import log
log.set_file_name("debug.log")
log.write("System starting")
...
If you really absolutely have to have a singleton class then I'd go with:
class MySingleton(object):
def foo(self):
pass
my_singleton = MySingleton()
To use:
from mysingleton import my_singleton
my_singleton.foo()
where mysingleton.py is your filename that MySingleton is defined in. This works because after the first time a file is imported, Python doesn't re-execute the code.
Here's a one-liner for you:
singleton = lambda c: c()
Here's how you use it:
#singleton
class wat(object):
def __init__(self): self.x = 1
def get_x(self): return self.x
assert wat.get_x() == 1
Your object gets instantiated eagerly. This may or may not be what you want.
Check out Stack Overflow question Is there a simple, elegant way to define singletons in Python? with several solutions.
I'd strongly recommend to watch Alex Martelli's talks on design patterns in python: part 1 and part 2. In particular, in part 1 he talks about singletons/shared state objects.
If one wants to have multiple number of instances of the same class, but only if the args or kwargs are different, one can use the third-party python package Handy Decorators (package decorators).
Ex.
If you have a class handling serial communication, and to create an instance you want to send the serial port as an argument, then with traditional approach won't work
Using the above mentioned decorators, one can create multiple instances of the class if the args are different.
For same args, the decorator will return the same instance which is already been created.
>>> from decorators import singleton
>>>
>>> #singleton
... class A:
... def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
... pass
...
>>>
>>> a = A(name='Siddhesh')
>>> b = A(name='Siddhesh', lname='Sathe')
>>> c = A(name='Siddhesh', lname='Sathe')
>>> a is b # has to be different
False
>>> b is c # has to be same
True
>>>
You just need a decorator, depending on the python version:
Python 3.2+
Implementation
from functools import lru_cache
#lru_cache(maxsize=None)
class CustomClass(object):
def __init__(self, arg):
print(f"CustomClass initialised with {arg}")
self.arg = arg
Usage
c1 = CustomClass("foo")
c2 = CustomClass("foo")
c3 = CustomClass("bar")
print(c1 == c2)
print(c1 == c3)
Output
>>> CustomClass initialised with foo
>>> CustomClass initialised with bar
>>> True
>>> False
Notice how foo got printed only once
Python 3.9+
Implementation:
from functools import cache
#cache
class CustomClass(object):
...
Using a function attribute is also very simple
def f():
if not hasattr(f, 'value'):
setattr(f, 'value', singletonvalue)
return f.value
I prefer this solution which I found very clear and straightforward.
It is using double check for instance, if some other thread already created it.
Additional thing to consider is to make sure that deserialization isn't creating any other instances.
https://gist.github.com/werediver/4396488
import threading
# Based on tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance() approach.
# See https://github.com/facebook/tornado
class SingletonMixin(object):
__singleton_lock = threading.Lock()
__singleton_instance = None
#classmethod
def instance(cls):
if not cls.__singleton_instance:
with cls.__singleton_lock:
if not cls.__singleton_instance:
cls.__singleton_instance = cls()
return cls.__singleton_instance
if __name__ == '__main__':
class A(SingletonMixin):
pass
class B(SingletonMixin):
pass
a, a2 = A.instance(), A.instance()
b, b2 = B.instance(), B.instance()
assert a is a2
assert b is b2
assert a is not b
print('a: %s\na2: %s' % (a, a2))
print('b: %s\nb2: %s' % (b, b2))
Here's my own implementation of singletons. All you have to do is decorate the class; to get the singleton, you then have to use the Instance method. Here's an example:
#Singleton
class Foo:
def __init__(self):
print 'Foo created'
f = Foo() # Error, this isn't how you get the instance of a singleton
f = Foo.Instance() # Good. Being explicit is in line with the Python Zen
g = Foo.Instance() # Returns already created instance
print f is g # True
And here's the code:
class Singleton:
"""
A non-thread-safe helper class to ease implementing singletons.
This should be used as a decorator -- not a metaclass -- to the
class that should be a singleton.
The decorated class can define one `__init__` function that
takes only the `self` argument. Other than that, there are
no restrictions that apply to the decorated class.
To get the singleton instance, use the `Instance` method. Trying
to use `__call__` will result in a `TypeError` being raised.
Limitations: The decorated class cannot be inherited from.
"""
def __init__(self, decorated):
self._decorated = decorated
def Instance(self):
"""
Returns the singleton instance. Upon its first call, it creates a
new instance of the decorated class and calls its `__init__` method.
On all subsequent calls, the already created instance is returned.
"""
try:
return self._instance
except AttributeError:
self._instance = self._decorated()
return self._instance
def __call__(self):
raise TypeError('Singletons must be accessed through `Instance()`.')
def __instancecheck__(self, inst):
return isinstance(inst, self._decorated)
I will recommend an elegant solution using metaclasses
class Singleton(type):
# Inherit from "type" in order to gain access to method __call__
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
self.__instance = None # Create a variable to store the object reference
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self.__instance is None:
# if the object has not already been created
self.__instance = super().__call__(*args, **kwargs) # Call the __init__ method of the subclass (Spam) and save the reference
return self.__instance
else:
# if object (Spam) reference already exists; return it
return self.__instance
class Spam(metaclass=Singleton):
def __init__(self, x):
print('Creating Spam')
self.x = x
if __name__ == '__main__':
spam = Spam(100)
spam2 = Spam(200)
Output:
Creating Spam
As you can see from the output, only one object is instantiated
from functools import cache
#cache
class xxx:
....
Dead easy and works!
Use a class variable (no decorator)
By overriding the __new__ method to return the same instance of the class. A boolean to only initialize the class for the first time:
class SingletonClass:
_instance = None
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
# If no instance of class already exits
if cls._instance is None:
cls._instance = object.__new__(cls)
cls._instance._initialized = False
return cls._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._initialized:
return
self.attr1 = args[0]
# set the attribute to `True` to not initialize again
self._initialized = True
Method 3 seems to be very neat, but if you want your program to run in both Python 2 and Python 3, it doesn't work. Even protecting the separate variants with tests for the Python version fails, because the Python 3 version gives a syntax error in Python 2.
Thanks to Mike Watkins: http://mikewatkins.ca/2008/11/29/python-2-and-3-metaclasses/. If you want the program to work in both Python 2 and Python 3, you need to do something like:
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
MC = Singleton('MC', (object), {})
class MyClass(MC):
pass # Code for the class implementation
I presume that 'object' in the assignment needs to be replaced with the 'BaseClass', but I haven't tried that (I have tried code as illustrated).
I'll toss mine into the ring. It's a simple decorator.
from abc import ABC
def singleton(real_cls):
class SingletonFactory(ABC):
instance = None
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if not cls.instance:
cls.instance = real_cls(*args, **kwargs)
return cls.instance
SingletonFactory.register(real_cls)
return SingletonFactory
# Usage
#singleton
class YourClass:
... # Your normal implementation, no special requirements.
Benefits I think it has over some of the other solutions:
It's clear and concise (to my eye ;D).
Its action is completely encapsulated. You don't need to change a single thing about the implementation of YourClass. This includes not needing to use a metaclass for your class (note that the metaclass above is on the factory, not the "real" class).
It doesn't rely on monkey-patching anything.
It's transparent to callers:
Callers still simply import YourClass, it looks like a class (because it is), and they use it normally. No need to adapt callers to a factory function.
What YourClass() instantiates is still a true instance of the YourClass you implemented, not a proxy of any kind, so no chance of side effects resulting from that.
isinstance(instance, YourClass) and similar operations still work as expected (though this bit does require abc so precludes Python <2.6).
One downside does occur to me: classmethods and staticmethods of the real class are not transparently callable via the factory class hiding it. I've used this rarely enough that I've never happen to run into that need, but it would be easily rectified by using a custom metaclass on the factory that implements __getattr__() to delegate all-ish attribute access to the real class.
A related pattern I've actually found more useful (not that I'm saying these kinds of things are required very often at all) is a "Unique" pattern where instantiating the class with the same arguments results in getting back the same instance. I.e. a "singleton per arguments". The above adapts to this well and becomes even more concise:
def unique(real_cls):
class UniqueFactory(ABC):
#functools.lru_cache(None) # Handy for 3.2+, but use any memoization decorator you like
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
return real_cls(*args, **kwargs)
UniqueFactory.register(real_cls)
return UniqueFactory
All that said, I do agree with the general advice that if you think you need one of these things, you really should probably stop for a moment and ask yourself if you really do. 99% of the time, YAGNI.
Maybe I missunderstand the singleton pattern but my solution is this simple and pragmatic (pythonic?). This code fullfills two goals
Make the instance of Foo accessiable everywhere (global).
Only one instance of Foo can exist.
This is the code.
#!/usr/bin/env python3
class Foo:
me = None
def __init__(self):
if Foo.me != None:
raise Exception('Instance of Foo still exists!')
Foo.me = self
if __name__ == '__main__':
Foo()
Foo()
Output
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "./x.py", line 15, in <module>
Foo()
File "./x.py", line 8, in __init__
raise Exception('Instance of Foo still exists!')
Exception: Instance of Foo still exists!
Well, other than agreeing with the general Pythonic suggestion on having module-level global, how about this:
def singleton(class_):
class class_w(class_):
_instance = None
def __new__(class2, *args, **kwargs):
if class_w._instance is None:
class_w._instance = super(class_w, class2).__new__(class2, *args, **kwargs)
class_w._instance._sealed = False
return class_w._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._sealed:
return
super(class_w, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
self._sealed = True
class_w.__name__ = class_.__name__
return class_w
#singleton
class MyClass(object):
def __init__(self, text):
print text
#classmethod
def name(class_):
print class_.__name__
x = MyClass(111)
x.name()
y = MyClass(222)
print id(x) == id(y)
Output is:
111 # the __init__ is called only on the 1st time
MyClass # the __name__ is preserved
True # this is actually the same instance
How about this:
def singleton(cls):
instance=cls()
cls.__new__ = cls.__call__= lambda cls: instance
cls.__init__ = lambda self: None
return instance
Use it as a decorator on a class that should be a singleton. Like this:
#singleton
class MySingleton:
#....
This is similar to the singleton = lambda c: c() decorator in another answer. Like the other solution, the only instance has name of the class (MySingleton). However, with this solution you can still "create" instances (actually get the only instance) from the class, by doing MySingleton(). It also prevents you from creating additional instances by doing type(MySingleton)() (that also returns the same instance).
This answer is likely not what you're looking for. I wanted a singleton in the sense that only that object had its identity, for comparison to. In my case it was being used as a Sentinel Value. To which the answer is very simple, make any object mything = object() and by python's nature, only that thing will have its identity.
#!python
MyNone = object() # The singleton
for item in my_list:
if item is MyNone: # An Example identity comparison
raise StopIteration
Pros
It's a true class Auto-magically covers inheritance Uses metaclass
for its proper purpose (and made me aware of it) Cons
Are there any?
This will be problem with serialziation. If you try to deserialize object from file (pickle) it will not use __call__ so it will create new file, you can use base class inheritance with __new__ to prevent that.
I also prefer decorator syntax to deriving from metaclass. My two cents:
from typing import Callable, Dict, Set
def singleton(cls_: Callable) -> type:
""" Implements a simple singleton decorator
"""
class Singleton(cls_): # type: ignore
__instances: Dict[type, object] = {}
__initialized: Set[type] = set()
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if Singleton.__instances.get(cls) is None:
Singleton.__instances[cls] = super().__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
return Singleton.__instances[cls]
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self.__class__ not in Singleton.__initialized:
Singleton.__initialized.add(self.__class__)
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
return Singleton
#singleton
class MyClass(...):
...
This has some benefits above other decorators provided:
isinstance(MyClass(), MyClass) will still work (returning a function from the clausure instead of a class will make isinstance to fail)
property, classmethod and staticmethod will still work as expected
__init__() constructor is executed only once
You can inherit from your decorated class (useless?) using #singleton again
Cons:
print(MyClass().__class__.__name__) will return Singleton instead of MyClass. If you still need this, I recommend using a metaclass as suggested above.
If you need a different instance based on constructor parameters this solution needs to be improved (solution provided by siddhesh-suhas-sathe provides this).
Finally, as other suggested, consider using a module in python. Modules are objects. You can even pass them in variables and inject them in other classes.
I just made a simple one by accident and thought I'd share it...
class MySingleton(object):
def __init__(self, *, props={}):
self.__dict__ = props
mything = MySingleton()
mything.test = 1
mything2 = MySingleton()
print(mything2.test)
mything2.test = 5
print(mything.test)
It is slightly similar to the answer by fab but not exactly the same.
The singleton pattern does not require that we be able to call the constructor multiple times. As a singleton should be created once and once only, shouldn't it be seen to be created just once? "Spoofing" the constructor arguably impairs legibility.
So my suggestion is just this:
class Elvis():
def __init__(self):
if hasattr(self.__class__, 'instance'):
raise Exception()
self.__class__.instance = self
# initialisation code...
#staticmethod
def the():
if hasattr(Elvis, 'instance'):
return Elvis.instance
return Elvis()
This does not rule out the use of the constructor or the field instance by user code:
if Elvis() is King.instance:
... if you know for sure that Elvis has not yet been created, and that King has.
But it encourages users to use the the method universally:
Elvis.the().leave(Building.the())
To make this complete you could also override __delattr__() to raise an Exception if an attempt is made to delete instance, and override __del__() so that it raises an Exception (unless we know the program is ending...)
Further improvements
My thanks to those who have helped with comments and edits, of which more are welcome. While I use Jython, this should work more generally, and be thread-safe.
try:
# This is jython-specific
from synchronize import make_synchronized
except ImportError:
# This should work across different python implementations
def make_synchronized(func):
import threading
func.__lock__ = threading.Lock()
def synced_func(*args, **kws):
with func.__lock__:
return func(*args, **kws)
return synced_func
class Elvis(object): # NB must be subclass of object to use __new__
instance = None
#classmethod
#make_synchronized
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls.instance is not None:
raise Exception()
cls.instance = object.__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
return cls.instance
def __init__(self):
pass
# initialisation code...
#classmethod
#make_synchronized
def the(cls):
if cls.instance is not None:
return cls.instance
return cls()
Points of note:
If you don't subclass from object in python2.x you will get an old-style class, which does not use __new__
When decorating __new__ you must decorate with #classmethod or __new__ will be an unbound instance method
This could possibly be improved by way of use of a metaclass, as this would allow you to make the a class-level property, possibly renaming it to instance
Method: override __new__ after single use
class Singleton():
def __init__(self):
Singleton.instance = self
Singleton.__new__ = lambda _: Singleton.instance
Pros
Extremely simple and concise
True class, no modules needed
Proper use of lambda and pythonic monkey patching
Cons
__new__ could be overridden again
I can't remember where I found this solution, but I find it to be the most 'elegant' from my non-Python-expert point of view:
class SomeSingleton(dict):
__instance__ = None
def __new__(cls, *args,**kwargs):
if SomeSingleton.__instance__ is None:
SomeSingleton.__instance__ = dict.__new__(cls)
return SomeSingleton.__instance__
def __init__(self):
pass
def some_func(self,arg):
pass
Why do I like this? No decorators, no meta classes, no multiple inheritance...and if you decide you don't want it to be a Singleton anymore, just delete the __new__ method. As I am new to Python (and OOP in general) I expect someone will set me straight about why this is a terrible approach?
Code based on Tolli's answer.
#decorator, modyfies new_cls
def _singleton(new_cls):
instance = new_cls() #2
def new(cls):
if isinstance(instance, cls): #4
return instance
else:
raise TypeError("I can only return instance of {}, caller wanted {}".format(new_cls, cls))
new_cls.__new__ = new #3
new_cls.__init__ = lambda self: None #5
return new_cls
#decorator, creates new class
def singleton(cls):
new_cls = type('singleton({})'.format(cls.__name__), (cls,), {} ) #1
return _singleton(new_cls)
#metaclass
def meta_singleton(name, bases, attrs):
new_cls = type(name, bases, attrs) #1
return _singleton(new_cls)
Explanation:
Create new class, inheriting from given cls
(it doesn't modify cls in case someone wants for example singleton(list))
Create instance. Before overriding __new__ it's so easy.
Now, when we have easily created instance, overrides __new__ using method defined moment ago.
The function returns instance only when it's what the caller expects, otherwise raises TypeError.
The condition is not met when someone attempts to inherit from decorated class.
If __new__() returns an instance of cls, then the new instance’s __init__() method will be invoked like __init__(self[, ...]), where self is the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were passed to __new__().
instance is already initialized, so function replaces __init__ with function doing nothing.
See it working online
If you don't need lazy initialization of the instance of the Singleton, then the following should be easy and thread-safe:
class A:
instance = None
# Methods and variables of the class/object A follow
A.instance = A()
This way A is a singleton initialized at module import.
After struggling with this for some time I eventually came up with the following, so that the config object would only be loaded once, when called up from separate modules. The metaclass allows a global class instance to be stored in the builtins dict, which at present appears to be the neatest way of storing a proper program global.
import builtins
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
# So..... you would expect that a class would be "global" in scope, however
# when different modules use this,
# EACH ONE effectively has its own class namespace.
# In order to get around this, we use a metaclass to intercept
# "new" and provide the "truly global metaclass instance" if it already exists
class MetaConfig(type):
def __new__(cls, name, bases, dct):
try:
class_inst = builtins.CONFIG_singleton
except AttributeError:
class_inst = super().__new__(cls, name, bases, dct)
builtins.CONFIG_singleton = class_inst
class_inst.do_load()
return class_inst
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
class Config(metaclass=MetaConfig):
config_attr = None
#classmethod
def do_load(cls):
...<load-cfg-from-file>...
You can use a metaclass if you want to use instance as a property. For example;
class SingletonMeta(type):
def __init__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
cls._instance = None
cls._locker = threading.Lock()
#property
def instance(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._instance is None:
with self._locker:
if self._instance is None:
self._instance = self(*args, **kwargs)
return self._instance
class MyClass(metaclass=SingletonMeta):
def __init__(self):
# init here
pass
# get the instance
my_class_instance = MyClass.instance
Let's say I have a superclass Spam, and from it there's a lot of subclasses. How do I look through all instances in the entire runtime of one of these and reference them for data manipulation or comparisons? Doesn't have to be about superclasses and subclasses specifically, but I wanted to mention those in case there's different approaches between those and independent classes.
It seems like a pretty core question in Python programming, but I couldn't find any information that answers what I look for specifically, oddly enough, unless I am using the wrong terms.
You can keep track of all instances that are still referenced using a WeakSet.
from weakref import WeakSet
class Spam:
_instances = WeakSet()
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
self._instances.add(self)
Here is a working example.
class SubSpam(Spam):
pass
x = SubSpam() # Create an instance
len(Spam._instances) # 1
x = 0 # Drop reference to this instance
len(Spam._instances) # 0
For the above to work you will need to make sure to always call the super __init__ method when overidding __init__.
class AnotherSubSpam(Spam):
def __init__(self):
# Do some stuff
super().__init__()
Alternatively, you could also keep track of the instances in the __new__ method which is not as often overridden.
class Spam:
_instances = WeakSet()
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
# Create the instance
instance = super().__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
# Keep track of the instance
cls._instances.add(instance)
# Return the instance as __new__ would
return instance
I'm having a minor, I hope, issue with theory and the proper way to deal with a problem. It's easier for me to show an example then to explain as I seem to fail with my vocabulary.
class Original_1:
def __init__(self):
pass
def meth1(self):
pass
def meth2(self):
pass
class Original_2(Original_1):
def __init__(self):
Original_1.__init__(self)
def meth3(self):
pass
class Mixin:
def __init__(self):
pass
def meth4(self):
...
meth1(self)
meth2(self)
class NewClass_1(Original_1, Mixin):
def __init__(self):
Original_1.__init__(self)
Mixin.__init__(self)
class NewClass_2(Original_2, Mixin):
def __init__(self):
Original_2.__init__(self)
Mixin.__init__(self)
Now the goal is to extend Original_1 or Original_2 with new methods in the Mixin, but I run into some questions if I use meth1(), meth2(), or meth3() in the mixin. 1. I'm not referencing Original_1 or Origninal_2 in the mixin. (At this point it runs but I don't like it.) 2. If I make Mixin a child of Original_1, it breaks. I could make two separate NewClass_X but then I'm duplicating all of that code.
Mixins are used to add functionality (usually methods) to classes by using multiple inheritance.
For example, let's say you want to make a class's __str__ method return everything in uppercase. There are two ways you can do this:
Manually change every single class's __str__ method:
class SomeClass(SomeBase):
def __str__(self):
return super(SomeClass, self).__str__().upper()
Create a mixin class that does only this and inherit from it:
class UpperStrMixin(object):
def __str__(self):
return super(UpperStrMixin, self).__str__().upper()
class SomeClass(SomeBase, UpperStrMixin):
...
In the second example, notice how UpperStrMixin is completely useless as a standalone class. Its only purpose is to be used with multiple inheritance as a base class and to override your class's __str__ method.
In your particular case, the following will work:
class Mixin:
def __init__(self, option):
...
def meth4(self):
...
self.meth1()
self.meth2()
class NewClass_1(Original_1, Mixin):
def __init__(self, option):
Original_1.__init__(self)
Mixin.__init__(self, option)
...
class NewClass_2(Original_2, Mixin):
def __init__(self, option):
Original_2.__init__(self)
Mixin.__init__(self, option)
...
Even though Mixin.meth1 and Mixin.meth2 aren't defined, this isn't an issue because an instance of Mixin is never created directly and it's only used indirectly through multiple inheritance.
Since Mixin is not a standalone class, you can just write it to assume that the necessary methods exist, and it will find them on self assuming the self in question provides, or derives from another class which provides, meth1 and meth2.
If you want to ensure the methods exist, you can either document it in the Mixin docstring, or for programmatic enforcement, use the abc module to make Mixin an ABC and specify what methods must be defined; if a given class doesn't provide them (directly or via inheritance) then you'll get an error if you attempt to instantiate it (because the class is still abstract until those methods are defined):
from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod
class Mixin(metaclass=ABCMeta):
def __init__(self):
pass
#abstractmethod
def meth1(self): pass
#abstractmethod
def meth2(self): pass
def meth4(self):
...
self.meth1() # Method call on self will dispatch to other class's meth1 dynamically
self.meth2() # Method call on self will dispatch to other class's meth2 dynamically
Beyond that, you can simplify your code significantly by using super appropriately, which would remove the need to explicitly call the __init__s for each parent class; they'd be called automatically so long as all classes use super appropriately (note: for safety, in cooperative inheritance like this, you usually accept the current class's recognized arguments plus varargs, passing the varargs you don't recognize up the call chain blindly):
class Original_1:
def __init__(self, orig1arg, *args, **kwargs):
self.orig1val = orig1arg # Use what you know
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs) # Pass what you don't
def meth1(self):
pass
def meth2(self):
pass
class Original_2(Original_1):
def __init__(self, orig2arg, *args, **kwargs):
self.orig2val = orig2arg # Use what you know
super().__init__(self, *args, **kwargs) # Pass what you don't
def meth3(self):
pass
class Mixin(metaclass=ABCMeta):
# If Mixin, or any class in your hierarchy, doesn't need to do anything to
# be initialized, just omit __init__ entirely, and the super from other
# classes will skip over it entirely
def __init__(self, mixinarg, *args, **kwargs):
self.mixinval = mixinarg # Use what you know
super().__init__(self, *args, **kwargs) # Pass what you don't
#abstractmethod
def meth1(self): pass
#abstractmethod
def meth2(self): pass
def meth4(self):
...
self.meth1() # Method call on self will dispatch to other class's meth1
self.meth2() # Method call on self will dispatch to other class's meth1
class NewClass_1(Original_1, Mixin):
def __init__(self, newarg1, *args, **kwargs):
self.newval1 = newarg1 # Use what you know
super().__init__(self, *args, **kwargs) # Pass what you don't
class NewClass_2(Original_2, Mixin):
def __init__(self, newarg2, *args, **kwargs):
self.newval2 = newarg2 # Use what you know
super().__init__(self, *args, **kwargs) # Pass what you don't
Note that using super everywhere means you don't need to explicitly call each __init__ for your parents; it automatically linearizes the calls, so for example, in NewClass_2, that single super().__init__ will delegate to the first parent (Original_2), which then delegates to Original_1, which then delegates to Mixin (even though Original_1 knows nothing about Mixin).
In more complicated multiple inheritance (say, you inherit from Mixin through two different parent classes that both inherit from it), using super is the only way to handle it reasonably; super naturally linearizes and deduplicates the parent class tree, so even though two parents derive from it, Mixin.__init__ would still only be called once, preventing subtle errors from initializing Mixin more than once.
Note: You didn't specify which version of Python you're using. Metaclasses and super are both better and simpler in Python 3, so I've used Python 3 syntax. For Python 2, you'd need to set the metaclass a different way, and call super providing the current class object and self explicitly, which makes it less nice, but then, Python 2 is generally less nice at this point, so consider writing new code for Python 3?
I have a base class like so:
class Token:
def __init__(self, value):
self.value = value.strip()
self.tokens = None
def get_value(self):
return self.value
def tokenize(self):
pass # abstract stub
def __str__(self):
return type(self).__name__ + ': '+ re.sub(r'\s+', ' ', self.value)
And a ton of it's child classes:
class T_DefineDirective(Token):
def __init__(self, value):
super().__init__(value)
class T_IncludeDirective(Token):
def __init__(self, value):
super().__init__(value)
class T_IfdefDirective(Token):
def __init__(self, value):
super().__init__(value)
class T_Identifier(Token):
def __init__(self, value):
super().__init__(value)
class T_Rvalue(Token):
def __init__(self, value):
super().__init__(value)
def tokenize(self):
pass # stuff here
Now I'm a DRY programmer. I hate repetition. If you look at the code, the __init__ piece is copy-pasted in all the child classes.
My question, is there some way to avoid the repetition, or is this really the right way?
(note that the example is a bit shortened, so it may not make too much sense. But you can see the issue I mean).
If you do not have any additional setup work to do in the Token subclasses, then it is safe not to override __init__.
If you do have to perform some subclass-specific initialisation, then the patten that you're using is fine and 'pythonic'.
To clarify:
if __init__ is not defined on a class, then Python will use the __init__ method defined on (one of) its parent class(es), if possible
this is because there aren't any special rules for overriding 'magic' methods like __init__
even if the initialiser on a parent class is used, an instance of the subclass will be created
this is because the actual creation happens in __new__; the newly created object is then passed to __init__ for initialisation
If you really want to eliminate as much boilerplate as possible:
First, you don't need __init__ if all it does is call super(); special methods are inherited just like any other methods, as sapi's answer explains.
Second, you can dynamically create a bunch of classes:
token_classes = {
'T_{}'.format(name): type('T_{}'.format(name), (Token,), {})
for name in 'DefineDirective IncludeDirective IfdefDirective Identifier'.split()
}
And you can use them straight out of that dict, but if you really want to make them into globals you can:
globals().update(token_classes)
However, the whole goal of avoiding repetition is to make your code more readable and maintainable, and in this case, I think we're achieving the opposite. :)
This question is not for the discussion of whether or not the singleton design pattern is desirable, is an anti-pattern, or for any religious wars, but to discuss how this pattern is best implemented in Python in such a way that is most pythonic. In this instance I define 'most pythonic' to mean that it follows the 'principle of least astonishment'.
I have multiple classes which would become singletons (my use-case is for a logger, but this is not important). I do not wish to clutter several classes with added gumph when I can simply inherit or decorate.
Best methods:
Method 1: A decorator
def singleton(class_):
instances = {}
def getinstance(*args, **kwargs):
if class_ not in instances:
instances[class_] = class_(*args, **kwargs)
return instances[class_]
return getinstance
#singleton
class MyClass(BaseClass):
pass
Pros
Decorators are additive in a way that is often more intuitive than multiple inheritance.
Cons
While objects created using MyClass() would be true singleton objects, MyClass itself is a function, not a class, so you cannot call class methods from it. Also for
x = MyClass();
y = MyClass();
t = type(n)();
then x == y but x != t && y != t
Method 2: A base class
class Singleton(object):
_instance = None
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if not isinstance(class_._instance, class_):
class_._instance = object.__new__(class_, *args, **kwargs)
return class_._instance
class MyClass(Singleton, BaseClass):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Cons
Multiple inheritance - eugh! __new__ could be overwritten during inheritance from a second base class? One has to think more than is necessary.
Method 3: A metaclass
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
#Python2
class MyClass(BaseClass):
__metaclass__ = Singleton
#Python3
class MyClass(BaseClass, metaclass=Singleton):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Auto-magically covers inheritance
Uses __metaclass__ for its proper purpose (and made me aware of it)
Cons
Are there any?
Method 4: decorator returning a class with the same name
def singleton(class_):
class class_w(class_):
_instance = None
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if class_w._instance is None:
class_w._instance = super(class_w,
class_).__new__(class_,
*args,
**kwargs)
class_w._instance._sealed = False
return class_w._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._sealed:
return
super(class_w, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
self._sealed = True
class_w.__name__ = class_.__name__
return class_w
#singleton
class MyClass(BaseClass):
pass
Pros
It's a true class
Auto-magically covers inheritance
Cons
Is there not an overhead for creating each new class? Here we are creating two classes for each class we wish to make a singleton. While this is fine in my case, I worry that this might not scale. Of course there is a matter of debate as to whether it aught to be too easy to scale this pattern...
What is the point of the _sealed attribute
Can't call methods of the same name on base classes using super() because they will recurse. This means you can't customize __new__ and can't subclass a class that needs you to call up to __init__.
Method 5: a module
a module file singleton.py
Pros
Simple is better than complex
Cons
Not lazily instantiated
Use a Metaclass
I would recommend Method #2, but you're better off using a metaclass than a base class. Here is a sample implementation:
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
class Logger(object):
__metaclass__ = Singleton
Or in Python3
class Logger(metaclass=Singleton):
pass
If you want to run __init__ every time the class is called, add
else:
cls._instances[cls].__init__(*args, **kwargs)
to the if statement in Singleton.__call__.
A few words about metaclasses. A metaclass is the class of a class; that is, a class is an instance of its metaclass. You find the metaclass of an object in Python with type(obj). Normal new-style classes are of type type. Logger in the code above will be of type class 'your_module.Singleton', just as the (only) instance of Logger will be of type class 'your_module.Logger'. When you call logger with Logger(), Python first asks the metaclass of Logger, Singleton, what to do, allowing instance creation to be pre-empted. This process is the same as Python asking a class what to do by calling __getattr__ when you reference one of its attributes by doing myclass.attribute.
A metaclass essentially decides what the definition of a class means and how to implement that definition. See for example http://code.activestate.com/recipes/498149/, which essentially recreates C-style structs in Python using metaclasses. The thread What are some (concrete) use-cases for metaclasses? also provides some examples, they generally seem to be related to declarative programming, especially as used in ORMs.
In this situation, if you use your Method #2, and a subclass defines a __new__ method, it will be executed every time you call SubClassOfSingleton() -- because it is responsible for calling the method that returns the stored instance. With a metaclass, it will only be called once, when the only instance is created. You want to customize what it means to call the class, which is decided by its type.
In general, it makes sense to use a metaclass to implement a singleton. A singleton is special because is created only once, and a metaclass is the way you customize the creation of a class. Using a metaclass gives you more control in case you need to customize the singleton class definitions in other ways.
Your singletons won't need multiple inheritance (because the metaclass is not a base class), but for subclasses of the created class that use multiple inheritance, you need to make sure the singleton class is the first / leftmost one with a metaclass that redefines __call__ This is very unlikely to be an issue. The instance dict is not in the instance's namespace so it won't accidentally overwrite it.
You will also hear that the singleton pattern violates the "Single Responsibility Principle" -- each class should do only one thing. That way you don't have to worry about messing up one thing the code does if you need to change another, because they are separate and encapsulated. The metaclass implementation passes this test. The metaclass is responsible for enforcing the pattern and the created class and subclasses need not be aware that they are singletons. Method #1 fails this test, as you noted with "MyClass itself is a a function, not a class, so you cannot call class methods from it."
Python 2 and 3 Compatible Version
Writing something that works in both Python2 and 3 requires using a slightly more complicated scheme. Since metaclasses are usually subclasses of type type, it's possible to use one to dynamically create an intermediary base class at run time with it as its metaclass and then use that as the baseclass of the public Singleton base class. It's harder to explain than to do, as illustrated next:
# works in Python 2 & 3
class _Singleton(type):
""" A metaclass that creates a Singleton base class when called. """
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(_Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
class Singleton(_Singleton('SingletonMeta', (object,), {})): pass
class Logger(Singleton):
pass
An ironic aspect of this approach is that it's using subclassing to implement a metaclass. One possible advantage is that, unlike with a pure metaclass, isinstance(inst, Singleton) will return True.
Corrections
On another topic, you've probably already noticed this, but the base class implementation in your original post is wrong. _instances needs to be referenced on the class, you need to use super() or you're recursing, and __new__ is actually a static method that you have to pass the class to, not a class method, as the actual class hasn't been created yet when it is called. All of these things will be true for a metaclass implementation as well.
class Singleton(object):
_instances = {}
def __new__(class_, *args, **kwargs):
if class_ not in class_._instances:
class_._instances[class_] = super(Singleton, class_).__new__(class_, *args, **kwargs)
return class_._instances[class_]
class MyClass(Singleton):
pass
c = MyClass()
Decorator Returning A Class
I originally was writing a comment but it was too long, so I'll add this here. Method #4 is better than the other decorator version, but it's more code than needed for a singleton, and it's not as clear what it does.
The main problems stem from the class being its own base class. First, isn't it weird to have a class be a subclass of a nearly identical class with the same name that exists only in its __class__ attribute? This also means that you can't define any methods that call the method of the same name on their base class with super() because they will recurse. This means your class can't customize __new__, and can't derive from any classes that need __init__ called on them.
When to use the singleton pattern
Your use case is one of the better examples of wanting to use a singleton. You say in one of the comments "To me logging has always seemed a natural candidate for Singletons." You're absolutely right.
When people say singletons are bad, the most common reason is they are implicit shared state. While with global variables and top-level module imports are explicit shared state, other objects that are passed around are generally instantiated. This is a good point, with two exceptions.
The first, and one that gets mentioned in various places, is when the singletons are constant. Use of global constants, especially enums, is widely accepted, and considered sane because no matter what, none of the users can mess them up for any other user. This is equally true for a constant singleton.
The second exception, which get mentioned less, is the opposite -- when the singleton is only a data sink, not a data source (directly or indirectly). This is why loggers feel like a "natural" use for singletons. As the various users are not changing the loggers in ways other users will care about, there is not really shared state. This negates the primary argument against the singleton pattern, and makes them a reasonable choice because of their ease of use for the task.
Here is a quote from http://googletesting.blogspot.com/2008/08/root-cause-of-singletons.html:
Now, there is one kind of Singleton which is OK. That is a singleton where all of the reachable objects are immutable. If all objects are immutable than Singleton has no global state, as everything is constant. But it is so easy to turn this kind of singleton into mutable one, it is very slippery slope. Therefore, I am against these Singletons too, not because they are bad, but because it is very easy for them to go bad. (As a side note Java enumeration are just these kind of singletons. As long as you don't put state into your enumeration you are OK, so please don't.)
The other kind of Singletons, which are semi-acceptable are those which don't effect the execution of your code, They have no "side effects". Logging is perfect example. It is loaded with Singletons and global state. It is acceptable (as in it will not hurt you) because your application does not behave any different whether or not a given logger is enabled. The information here flows one way: From your application into the logger. Even thought loggers are global state since no information flows from loggers into your application, loggers are acceptable. You should still inject your logger if you want your test to assert that something is getting logged, but in general Loggers are not harmful despite being full of state.
class Foo(object):
pass
some_global_variable = Foo()
Modules are imported only once, everything else is overthinking. Don't use singletons and try not to use globals.
Use a module. It is imported only once. Define some global variables in it - they will be singleton's 'attributes'. Add some functions - the singleton's 'methods'.
You probably never need a singleton in Python. Just define all your data and functions in a module and you have a de facto singleton:
import datetime
file_name=None
def set_file_name(new_file_name: str):
global file_name
file_name=new_file_name
def write(message: str):
global file_name
if file_name:
with open(file_name, 'a+') as f:
f.write("{} {}\n".format(datetime.datetime.now(), message))
else:
print("LOG: {}", message)
To use:
import log
log.set_file_name("debug.log")
log.write("System starting")
...
If you really absolutely have to have a singleton class then I'd go with:
class MySingleton(object):
def foo(self):
pass
my_singleton = MySingleton()
To use:
from mysingleton import my_singleton
my_singleton.foo()
where mysingleton.py is your filename that MySingleton is defined in. This works because after the first time a file is imported, Python doesn't re-execute the code.
Here's a one-liner for you:
singleton = lambda c: c()
Here's how you use it:
#singleton
class wat(object):
def __init__(self): self.x = 1
def get_x(self): return self.x
assert wat.get_x() == 1
Your object gets instantiated eagerly. This may or may not be what you want.
Check out Stack Overflow question Is there a simple, elegant way to define singletons in Python? with several solutions.
I'd strongly recommend to watch Alex Martelli's talks on design patterns in python: part 1 and part 2. In particular, in part 1 he talks about singletons/shared state objects.
If one wants to have multiple number of instances of the same class, but only if the args or kwargs are different, one can use the third-party python package Handy Decorators (package decorators).
Ex.
If you have a class handling serial communication, and to create an instance you want to send the serial port as an argument, then with traditional approach won't work
Using the above mentioned decorators, one can create multiple instances of the class if the args are different.
For same args, the decorator will return the same instance which is already been created.
>>> from decorators import singleton
>>>
>>> #singleton
... class A:
... def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
... pass
...
>>>
>>> a = A(name='Siddhesh')
>>> b = A(name='Siddhesh', lname='Sathe')
>>> c = A(name='Siddhesh', lname='Sathe')
>>> a is b # has to be different
False
>>> b is c # has to be same
True
>>>
You just need a decorator, depending on the python version:
Python 3.2+
Implementation
from functools import lru_cache
#lru_cache(maxsize=None)
class CustomClass(object):
def __init__(self, arg):
print(f"CustomClass initialised with {arg}")
self.arg = arg
Usage
c1 = CustomClass("foo")
c2 = CustomClass("foo")
c3 = CustomClass("bar")
print(c1 == c2)
print(c1 == c3)
Output
>>> CustomClass initialised with foo
>>> CustomClass initialised with bar
>>> True
>>> False
Notice how foo got printed only once
Python 3.9+
Implementation:
from functools import cache
#cache
class CustomClass(object):
...
Using a function attribute is also very simple
def f():
if not hasattr(f, 'value'):
setattr(f, 'value', singletonvalue)
return f.value
I prefer this solution which I found very clear and straightforward.
It is using double check for instance, if some other thread already created it.
Additional thing to consider is to make sure that deserialization isn't creating any other instances.
https://gist.github.com/werediver/4396488
import threading
# Based on tornado.ioloop.IOLoop.instance() approach.
# See https://github.com/facebook/tornado
class SingletonMixin(object):
__singleton_lock = threading.Lock()
__singleton_instance = None
#classmethod
def instance(cls):
if not cls.__singleton_instance:
with cls.__singleton_lock:
if not cls.__singleton_instance:
cls.__singleton_instance = cls()
return cls.__singleton_instance
if __name__ == '__main__':
class A(SingletonMixin):
pass
class B(SingletonMixin):
pass
a, a2 = A.instance(), A.instance()
b, b2 = B.instance(), B.instance()
assert a is a2
assert b is b2
assert a is not b
print('a: %s\na2: %s' % (a, a2))
print('b: %s\nb2: %s' % (b, b2))
Here's my own implementation of singletons. All you have to do is decorate the class; to get the singleton, you then have to use the Instance method. Here's an example:
#Singleton
class Foo:
def __init__(self):
print 'Foo created'
f = Foo() # Error, this isn't how you get the instance of a singleton
f = Foo.Instance() # Good. Being explicit is in line with the Python Zen
g = Foo.Instance() # Returns already created instance
print f is g # True
And here's the code:
class Singleton:
"""
A non-thread-safe helper class to ease implementing singletons.
This should be used as a decorator -- not a metaclass -- to the
class that should be a singleton.
The decorated class can define one `__init__` function that
takes only the `self` argument. Other than that, there are
no restrictions that apply to the decorated class.
To get the singleton instance, use the `Instance` method. Trying
to use `__call__` will result in a `TypeError` being raised.
Limitations: The decorated class cannot be inherited from.
"""
def __init__(self, decorated):
self._decorated = decorated
def Instance(self):
"""
Returns the singleton instance. Upon its first call, it creates a
new instance of the decorated class and calls its `__init__` method.
On all subsequent calls, the already created instance is returned.
"""
try:
return self._instance
except AttributeError:
self._instance = self._decorated()
return self._instance
def __call__(self):
raise TypeError('Singletons must be accessed through `Instance()`.')
def __instancecheck__(self, inst):
return isinstance(inst, self._decorated)
I will recommend an elegant solution using metaclasses
class Singleton(type):
# Inherit from "type" in order to gain access to method __call__
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
self.__instance = None # Create a variable to store the object reference
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self.__instance is None:
# if the object has not already been created
self.__instance = super().__call__(*args, **kwargs) # Call the __init__ method of the subclass (Spam) and save the reference
return self.__instance
else:
# if object (Spam) reference already exists; return it
return self.__instance
class Spam(metaclass=Singleton):
def __init__(self, x):
print('Creating Spam')
self.x = x
if __name__ == '__main__':
spam = Spam(100)
spam2 = Spam(200)
Output:
Creating Spam
As you can see from the output, only one object is instantiated
from functools import cache
#cache
class xxx:
....
Dead easy and works!
Use a class variable (no decorator)
By overriding the __new__ method to return the same instance of the class. A boolean to only initialize the class for the first time:
class SingletonClass:
_instance = None
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
# If no instance of class already exits
if cls._instance is None:
cls._instance = object.__new__(cls)
cls._instance._initialized = False
return cls._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._initialized:
return
self.attr1 = args[0]
# set the attribute to `True` to not initialize again
self._initialized = True
Method 3 seems to be very neat, but if you want your program to run in both Python 2 and Python 3, it doesn't work. Even protecting the separate variants with tests for the Python version fails, because the Python 3 version gives a syntax error in Python 2.
Thanks to Mike Watkins: http://mikewatkins.ca/2008/11/29/python-2-and-3-metaclasses/. If you want the program to work in both Python 2 and Python 3, you need to do something like:
class Singleton(type):
_instances = {}
def __call__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls not in cls._instances:
cls._instances[cls] = super(Singleton, cls).__call__(*args, **kwargs)
return cls._instances[cls]
MC = Singleton('MC', (object), {})
class MyClass(MC):
pass # Code for the class implementation
I presume that 'object' in the assignment needs to be replaced with the 'BaseClass', but I haven't tried that (I have tried code as illustrated).
I'll toss mine into the ring. It's a simple decorator.
from abc import ABC
def singleton(real_cls):
class SingletonFactory(ABC):
instance = None
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if not cls.instance:
cls.instance = real_cls(*args, **kwargs)
return cls.instance
SingletonFactory.register(real_cls)
return SingletonFactory
# Usage
#singleton
class YourClass:
... # Your normal implementation, no special requirements.
Benefits I think it has over some of the other solutions:
It's clear and concise (to my eye ;D).
Its action is completely encapsulated. You don't need to change a single thing about the implementation of YourClass. This includes not needing to use a metaclass for your class (note that the metaclass above is on the factory, not the "real" class).
It doesn't rely on monkey-patching anything.
It's transparent to callers:
Callers still simply import YourClass, it looks like a class (because it is), and they use it normally. No need to adapt callers to a factory function.
What YourClass() instantiates is still a true instance of the YourClass you implemented, not a proxy of any kind, so no chance of side effects resulting from that.
isinstance(instance, YourClass) and similar operations still work as expected (though this bit does require abc so precludes Python <2.6).
One downside does occur to me: classmethods and staticmethods of the real class are not transparently callable via the factory class hiding it. I've used this rarely enough that I've never happen to run into that need, but it would be easily rectified by using a custom metaclass on the factory that implements __getattr__() to delegate all-ish attribute access to the real class.
A related pattern I've actually found more useful (not that I'm saying these kinds of things are required very often at all) is a "Unique" pattern where instantiating the class with the same arguments results in getting back the same instance. I.e. a "singleton per arguments". The above adapts to this well and becomes even more concise:
def unique(real_cls):
class UniqueFactory(ABC):
#functools.lru_cache(None) # Handy for 3.2+, but use any memoization decorator you like
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
return real_cls(*args, **kwargs)
UniqueFactory.register(real_cls)
return UniqueFactory
All that said, I do agree with the general advice that if you think you need one of these things, you really should probably stop for a moment and ask yourself if you really do. 99% of the time, YAGNI.
Maybe I missunderstand the singleton pattern but my solution is this simple and pragmatic (pythonic?). This code fullfills two goals
Make the instance of Foo accessiable everywhere (global).
Only one instance of Foo can exist.
This is the code.
#!/usr/bin/env python3
class Foo:
me = None
def __init__(self):
if Foo.me != None:
raise Exception('Instance of Foo still exists!')
Foo.me = self
if __name__ == '__main__':
Foo()
Foo()
Output
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "./x.py", line 15, in <module>
Foo()
File "./x.py", line 8, in __init__
raise Exception('Instance of Foo still exists!')
Exception: Instance of Foo still exists!
Well, other than agreeing with the general Pythonic suggestion on having module-level global, how about this:
def singleton(class_):
class class_w(class_):
_instance = None
def __new__(class2, *args, **kwargs):
if class_w._instance is None:
class_w._instance = super(class_w, class2).__new__(class2, *args, **kwargs)
class_w._instance._sealed = False
return class_w._instance
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._sealed:
return
super(class_w, self).__init__(*args, **kwargs)
self._sealed = True
class_w.__name__ = class_.__name__
return class_w
#singleton
class MyClass(object):
def __init__(self, text):
print text
#classmethod
def name(class_):
print class_.__name__
x = MyClass(111)
x.name()
y = MyClass(222)
print id(x) == id(y)
Output is:
111 # the __init__ is called only on the 1st time
MyClass # the __name__ is preserved
True # this is actually the same instance
How about this:
def singleton(cls):
instance=cls()
cls.__new__ = cls.__call__= lambda cls: instance
cls.__init__ = lambda self: None
return instance
Use it as a decorator on a class that should be a singleton. Like this:
#singleton
class MySingleton:
#....
This is similar to the singleton = lambda c: c() decorator in another answer. Like the other solution, the only instance has name of the class (MySingleton). However, with this solution you can still "create" instances (actually get the only instance) from the class, by doing MySingleton(). It also prevents you from creating additional instances by doing type(MySingleton)() (that also returns the same instance).
This answer is likely not what you're looking for. I wanted a singleton in the sense that only that object had its identity, for comparison to. In my case it was being used as a Sentinel Value. To which the answer is very simple, make any object mything = object() and by python's nature, only that thing will have its identity.
#!python
MyNone = object() # The singleton
for item in my_list:
if item is MyNone: # An Example identity comparison
raise StopIteration
Pros
It's a true class Auto-magically covers inheritance Uses metaclass
for its proper purpose (and made me aware of it) Cons
Are there any?
This will be problem with serialziation. If you try to deserialize object from file (pickle) it will not use __call__ so it will create new file, you can use base class inheritance with __new__ to prevent that.
I also prefer decorator syntax to deriving from metaclass. My two cents:
from typing import Callable, Dict, Set
def singleton(cls_: Callable) -> type:
""" Implements a simple singleton decorator
"""
class Singleton(cls_): # type: ignore
__instances: Dict[type, object] = {}
__initialized: Set[type] = set()
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if Singleton.__instances.get(cls) is None:
Singleton.__instances[cls] = super().__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
return Singleton.__instances[cls]
def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self.__class__ not in Singleton.__initialized:
Singleton.__initialized.add(self.__class__)
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
return Singleton
#singleton
class MyClass(...):
...
This has some benefits above other decorators provided:
isinstance(MyClass(), MyClass) will still work (returning a function from the clausure instead of a class will make isinstance to fail)
property, classmethod and staticmethod will still work as expected
__init__() constructor is executed only once
You can inherit from your decorated class (useless?) using #singleton again
Cons:
print(MyClass().__class__.__name__) will return Singleton instead of MyClass. If you still need this, I recommend using a metaclass as suggested above.
If you need a different instance based on constructor parameters this solution needs to be improved (solution provided by siddhesh-suhas-sathe provides this).
Finally, as other suggested, consider using a module in python. Modules are objects. You can even pass them in variables and inject them in other classes.
I just made a simple one by accident and thought I'd share it...
class MySingleton(object):
def __init__(self, *, props={}):
self.__dict__ = props
mything = MySingleton()
mything.test = 1
mything2 = MySingleton()
print(mything2.test)
mything2.test = 5
print(mything.test)
It is slightly similar to the answer by fab but not exactly the same.
The singleton pattern does not require that we be able to call the constructor multiple times. As a singleton should be created once and once only, shouldn't it be seen to be created just once? "Spoofing" the constructor arguably impairs legibility.
So my suggestion is just this:
class Elvis():
def __init__(self):
if hasattr(self.__class__, 'instance'):
raise Exception()
self.__class__.instance = self
# initialisation code...
#staticmethod
def the():
if hasattr(Elvis, 'instance'):
return Elvis.instance
return Elvis()
This does not rule out the use of the constructor or the field instance by user code:
if Elvis() is King.instance:
... if you know for sure that Elvis has not yet been created, and that King has.
But it encourages users to use the the method universally:
Elvis.the().leave(Building.the())
To make this complete you could also override __delattr__() to raise an Exception if an attempt is made to delete instance, and override __del__() so that it raises an Exception (unless we know the program is ending...)
Further improvements
My thanks to those who have helped with comments and edits, of which more are welcome. While I use Jython, this should work more generally, and be thread-safe.
try:
# This is jython-specific
from synchronize import make_synchronized
except ImportError:
# This should work across different python implementations
def make_synchronized(func):
import threading
func.__lock__ = threading.Lock()
def synced_func(*args, **kws):
with func.__lock__:
return func(*args, **kws)
return synced_func
class Elvis(object): # NB must be subclass of object to use __new__
instance = None
#classmethod
#make_synchronized
def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
if cls.instance is not None:
raise Exception()
cls.instance = object.__new__(cls, *args, **kwargs)
return cls.instance
def __init__(self):
pass
# initialisation code...
#classmethod
#make_synchronized
def the(cls):
if cls.instance is not None:
return cls.instance
return cls()
Points of note:
If you don't subclass from object in python2.x you will get an old-style class, which does not use __new__
When decorating __new__ you must decorate with #classmethod or __new__ will be an unbound instance method
This could possibly be improved by way of use of a metaclass, as this would allow you to make the a class-level property, possibly renaming it to instance
Method: override __new__ after single use
class Singleton():
def __init__(self):
Singleton.instance = self
Singleton.__new__ = lambda _: Singleton.instance
Pros
Extremely simple and concise
True class, no modules needed
Proper use of lambda and pythonic monkey patching
Cons
__new__ could be overridden again
I can't remember where I found this solution, but I find it to be the most 'elegant' from my non-Python-expert point of view:
class SomeSingleton(dict):
__instance__ = None
def __new__(cls, *args,**kwargs):
if SomeSingleton.__instance__ is None:
SomeSingleton.__instance__ = dict.__new__(cls)
return SomeSingleton.__instance__
def __init__(self):
pass
def some_func(self,arg):
pass
Why do I like this? No decorators, no meta classes, no multiple inheritance...and if you decide you don't want it to be a Singleton anymore, just delete the __new__ method. As I am new to Python (and OOP in general) I expect someone will set me straight about why this is a terrible approach?
Code based on Tolli's answer.
#decorator, modyfies new_cls
def _singleton(new_cls):
instance = new_cls() #2
def new(cls):
if isinstance(instance, cls): #4
return instance
else:
raise TypeError("I can only return instance of {}, caller wanted {}".format(new_cls, cls))
new_cls.__new__ = new #3
new_cls.__init__ = lambda self: None #5
return new_cls
#decorator, creates new class
def singleton(cls):
new_cls = type('singleton({})'.format(cls.__name__), (cls,), {} ) #1
return _singleton(new_cls)
#metaclass
def meta_singleton(name, bases, attrs):
new_cls = type(name, bases, attrs) #1
return _singleton(new_cls)
Explanation:
Create new class, inheriting from given cls
(it doesn't modify cls in case someone wants for example singleton(list))
Create instance. Before overriding __new__ it's so easy.
Now, when we have easily created instance, overrides __new__ using method defined moment ago.
The function returns instance only when it's what the caller expects, otherwise raises TypeError.
The condition is not met when someone attempts to inherit from decorated class.
If __new__() returns an instance of cls, then the new instance’s __init__() method will be invoked like __init__(self[, ...]), where self is the new instance and the remaining arguments are the same as were passed to __new__().
instance is already initialized, so function replaces __init__ with function doing nothing.
See it working online
If you don't need lazy initialization of the instance of the Singleton, then the following should be easy and thread-safe:
class A:
instance = None
# Methods and variables of the class/object A follow
A.instance = A()
This way A is a singleton initialized at module import.
After struggling with this for some time I eventually came up with the following, so that the config object would only be loaded once, when called up from separate modules. The metaclass allows a global class instance to be stored in the builtins dict, which at present appears to be the neatest way of storing a proper program global.
import builtins
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
# So..... you would expect that a class would be "global" in scope, however
# when different modules use this,
# EACH ONE effectively has its own class namespace.
# In order to get around this, we use a metaclass to intercept
# "new" and provide the "truly global metaclass instance" if it already exists
class MetaConfig(type):
def __new__(cls, name, bases, dct):
try:
class_inst = builtins.CONFIG_singleton
except AttributeError:
class_inst = super().__new__(cls, name, bases, dct)
builtins.CONFIG_singleton = class_inst
class_inst.do_load()
return class_inst
# -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
class Config(metaclass=MetaConfig):
config_attr = None
#classmethod
def do_load(cls):
...<load-cfg-from-file>...
You can use a metaclass if you want to use instance as a property. For example;
class SingletonMeta(type):
def __init__(cls, *args, **kwargs):
super().__init__(*args, **kwargs)
cls._instance = None
cls._locker = threading.Lock()
#property
def instance(self, *args, **kwargs):
if self._instance is None:
with self._locker:
if self._instance is None:
self._instance = self(*args, **kwargs)
return self._instance
class MyClass(metaclass=SingletonMeta):
def __init__(self):
# init here
pass
# get the instance
my_class_instance = MyClass.instance